C.O’H. P.C. In: Stengel DB, Connan S, eds. et al. Premenopausal woman with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and premenopausal women with normal liver fat who consumed the fucoxanthin product over 16 weeks showed a significant reduction in body weight, by 5.5 kg and 5 kg, respectively, compared with the placebo group. . Intestinal absorption of fucoidan extracted from the brown seaweed, Fucoidan and cancer: a multifunctional molecule with anti-tumor potential, Efficacy of low-molecular-weight fucoidan as a supplemental therapy in metastatic colorectal cancer patients: a double-blind randomized controlled trial, In vitro fermentation by human faecal bacteria of total and purified dietary fibres from brown seaweeds, In vitro fermentation and prebiotic potential of novel low molecular weight polysaccharides derived from agar and alginate seaweeds, Comparative study on the in vitro effects of, Structural characterization and in vitro fermentation of a novel polysaccharide from, Prebiotic effects of diet supplemented with the cultivated red seaweed, Laminarin favorably modulates gut microbiota in mice fed a high-fat diet, Digestibility and energy availability of Wakame (, Scientific opinion on dietary reference values for fats, including saturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, and cholesterol, Functional foods and dietary supplements for the management of dyslipidaemia, The anti-inflammatory effect of algae-derived lipid extracts on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated human THP-1 macrophages, Seaweed extracts and unsaturated fatty acid constituents from the green alga, Profiling of the molecular weight and structural isomer abundance of macroalgae-derived phlorotannins, Effects of extraction and processing methods on antioxidant compound contents and radical scavenging activities of laver (, New insights into seaweed polyphenols on glucose homeostasis, Marine algae as a potential source for anti-obesity agents, Antioxidant activity of marine algal polyphenolic compounds: a mechanistic approach, Anti-proliferative activity of phlorotannin extracts from brown algae, Antioxidant activity, total phenolics and flavonoid contents of some edible green seaweeds from northern coasts of the Persian Gulf, Phenolic content and antioxidant capacity in algal food products, Dietary factors affecting polyphenol bioavailability, Gastrointestinal modifications and bioavailability of brown seaweed phlorotannins and effects on inflammatory markers, Sargassum polycystum reduces hyperglycaemia, dyslipidaemia and oxidative stress via increasing insulin sensitivity in a rat model of type 2 diabetes, Antidiabetic properties of polysaccharide- and polyphenolic-enriched fractions from the brown seaweed, Antidiabetic and antioxidant effects of polyphenols in brown alga, Insulinotrophic and hypolipidemic effects of. Strategies to prevent excessive iodine intake from seaweed food products include the disclosure of iodine content and the provision of cooking instructions on product labeling. . This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs licence (, Impact of preconception, pregnancy, and postpartum culinary nutrition education interventions: a systematic review. Paul Cherry, Cathal O’Hara, Pamela J Magee, Emeir M McSorley, Philip J Allsopp, Risks and benefits of consuming edible seaweeds, Nutrition Reviews, Volume 77, Issue 5, May 2019, Pages 307–329, https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuy066. Jimenez-Escrig A, Gomez-Ordonez E, Ruperez P. Fitzgerald C, Aluko RE, Hossain M, et al. . Thus, alginate isolated from brown seaweeds, long used by the food industry, is a leading candidate for application in the functional food market.91–93 Fucoidan was recently classified by the EFSA as a novel food,94 making it an another candidate for an emerging functional food ingredient, while suggestions that low-molecular-weight carrageenan components (< 50 kDa) may negatively impact health (on the basis of proinflammatory properties) have tempered interest in the potential use of carrageenan as a functional ingredient.95 Other seaweed fibers, such as xylan, laminarin, and ulvan, have not received official EFSA approval, and thus more research is needed to ascertain whether these carbohydrates are safe for human consumption. According to the assessment of dietary sodium in the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey, adults aged 19 to 64 years consume, on average, 7.8 g, 8.0 g, and 8.6 g of salt per day in Scotland, England, and Northern Ireland, respectively, intakes that far exceed the RNIs for salt (6 g/d) and sodium (1.6 g/d).189 Of the dried seaweed products shown in Tables S1 and S2 in the Supporting Information online, Laminaria digitata and Palmaria palmata have a ratio of sodium to potassium that may be favorable for their application as condiments to replace salt (1.03 and 0.84, respectively).29 However, small portion sizes of seaweed may be required to prevent excessive salt intake, given that a 5-g portion of Laminaria digitata can provide up to 0.35 g of salt and 0.26 g of sodium, while Palmaria palmata may provide up to 0.27 g of salt and 0.15 g of sodium. The Neptune’s Necklace (Hormosira banksii) being an exception. Caliceti M, Argese E, Sfriso A, Pavoni B. Burger J, Gochfeld M, Jeitner C, http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/surveillance/Pages/surveyofinorganicars5773.aspx. . et al. This narrative review summarizes the nutritional composition of edible seaweeds; evaluates the evidence regarding the health benefits of whole seaweeds, extracted bioactive components, and seaweed-based food products in humans; and assesses the potential adverse effects of edible seaweeds, including those related to ingestion of excess iodine and arsenic. Dominguez-Gonzalez MR, Chiocchetti GM, Herbello-Hermelo P, A systematic review, EFSA Panel on DieteticProducts, Nutrition and Allergies, Natural Products from Marine Algae: Methods and Protocols, Extraction optimization for phlorotannin recovery from the edible brown seaweed. It is hardy to zone (UK) 9 and is frost tender. . . Laparra JM, Velez D, Montoro R, Soares C, Machado S, Vieira EF, . . Low molecular weight fucoidan fraction ameliorates inflammation and deterioration of skin barrier in fine-dust stimulated keratinocytes. The arsenosugars present in seaweed resist cooking and in vitro digestion processes and have been suggested to be absorbed, in part, into the hepatic portal system intact.255 Human studies have shown considerable differences in the rate of excretion of arsenosugars, ranging from 4% to 95%.256 The high variability associated with arsenosugar metabolism may be attributable to between-individual differences in endogenous digestion, gut microbiota composition and activity, passage across the intestinal barrier, or transformation in the liver.256 Thus, there is a need to characterize the metabolic fate of arsenosugars in order to clarify the safety associated with arsenosugar-rich seafoods.257. For example, up to 98% of the fat content of Undaria pinnatifida (1.5% dry weight) is digestible in adults.128, Tables 1, 2, and 3 present the total fat content of several brown, red, and green seaweeds, respectively, while Tables S6, S7, and S8 in the Supporting Information online present a breakdown of the lipid content. In a Caco-2 and HT29-MTX coculture, iodine uptake following in vitro digestion was only 4% to 6% (hijiki), 2% to 4% (kombu), and 4% to 7% (wakame),203 which also suggests limited liberation of iodine species, limited solubility of iodine, or limited absorption of iodine.206–208, Urinary excretion of iodine from Gracilaria verrucosa and Laminaria hyperborea was reported as 101% and 90%, respectively, in an iodine-sufficient population, yet as 85% and 61.5% in an iodine-deficient population.209 Reduced urinary iodine excretion in the deficient cohort was attributed to increased iodine storage in the thyroid210; thus, seaweed consumption may improve iodine status in those at risk of iodine deficiency, as demonstrated in vegan populations.211,212. Possibly Sargassum horneri Scaberia sp. A randomized, double-blind, parallel, placebo-controlled trial in an overweight/obese cohort showed that participants who consumed fucoidan (500 mg/d) for 3 months had significantly reduced diastolic blood pressure and LDL-C compared with those who received placebo.107 No changes in weight, waist circumference, body mass index (BMI), adiposity, systolic blood pressure, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), blood glucose, or blood triglycerides were observed; however, blood insulin and homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) were increased in the fucoidan group compared with baseline values, but not compared with the placebo group. Survey of inorganic arsenic in seaweed and seaweed-containing products available in Australia. Seaweeds are a source of lysine,58,59 an essential amino acid often present in limited quantities in terrestrial plant protein sources such as corn, maize, soy, rice, and wheat.57 An 8-g portion of Palmaria palmata contains up to 21.9% of the recommended daily intake of cysteine, yet the total protein content of Palmaria palmata varies seasonally.58 For example, protein content was reported as 21.9% in winter/spring and as 11.9% in summer/autumn, with essential amino acids constituting 26% to 50% of the protein.60 Thus, exploiting seaweeds as nonanimal protein sources may be possible through harvesting plans that optimize protein and amino acid contents. MacMonagail M, Cornish L, Morrison L, The antiobesogenic effects of fucoxanthin have been reported in a human intervention trial in which consumption of fucoxanthin over 4 weeks significantly decreased BMI, body weight, and visceral fat area in mildly obese adults (BMI, 25–30 kg/m2), with no adverse events reported.171 However, mixed tocopherol and kelp extract components (the composition of which was undefined) were included in each capsule. The interaction of fucoidan with heparin cofactor II, antithrombin III, and thrombin, Modulation of platelet aggregation-related eicosanoid production by dietary F-fucoidan from brown alga. Parjikolaei BB, Bruhn A, Eybye K, Larsen M, Teas J, Pino S, Critchley A, Braverman LE. Paxman JR, Richardson JC, Dettmar PW, Corfe BM. Edible brown algae are considered a healthy food because: • They are a low fat source of minerals and fibre, vitamins and amino acids ... Hormosira banksii Ecklonia radiata Scytothamnus australis Landsburgia quercifolia PC 0.0 30.7 52.0 1.3 PI 8.7 8.9 8.3 10.0 PHEG 8.4 5.4 4.9 9.3 http://www.cfs.gov.hk/english/programme/programme_rafs/programme_rafs_fc_02_08.html. It is noted for attracting wildlife. . Van Hulle M, Zhang C, Schotte B, While some seaweed-derived fibers (alginate, carrageenan, and agar) have been used for decades for their emulsifying, stabilizing, and thickening characteristics to improve the sensory properties of food, there is limited interest in their application as functional dietary fibers. Galland-Irmouli AV, Fleurence J, Lamghari R, . A rice starch edible coating blended with sucrose esters was developed for controlling the postharvest physiological activity of Cavendish banana to extend postharvest quality during ripening at 20 ± 2 °C. There is increasing interest in the potential prebiotic effect of seaweed-derived fiber, which can modulate the composition and metabolism of the colonic microbiota, as well as growing interest in the effect of fiber fermentation on human health. A–C. Despite the nutritional attributes of red seaweeds such as Porphyra spp (also known as nori) and Palmaria palmata (dulse), which have a high protein content, relatively few investigations have focused on red seaweeds as a source of bioactive components. Nutrient content of tropical edible seaweeds, Seasonal variation in the chemical composition of two tropical seaweeds, Nutritional and chemical composition and antiviral activity of cultivated seaweed, Valuable biomolecules from nine north Atlantic red macroalgae: amino acids, fatty acids, carotenoids, minerals and metals, Evaluation of physicochemical properties, proximate and nutritional composition of, Nutritional evaluation of some subtropical red and green seaweeds: part I—proximate composition, amino acid profiles and some physico-chemical properties, Proximate chemical composition and amino acid profile of two red seaweeds (, Chemical composition, iron bioavailability, and antioxidant activity of, Seasonal variation in nutritional composition of, Biochemical composition of two red seaweed species grown on the Brazilian coast, Chemical composition, nutritional and antioxidant properties of the red edible seaweed, Nutritional and antioxidant properties of different brown and red Spanish edible seaweeds, Proximate composition, total phenolic content, and antioxidant activity of seagrape (, Nutritional evaluation of tropical green seaweeds. C. Ag. Food Standards Australia New Zealand. Some have suggested that future human intervention studies should quantify the iodine content of a seaweed food ingredient or supplement during product development, so that urinary iodine concentrations could be measured as a biomarker of iodine intake and bioavailability at time points throughout interventions.216,217. More research in healthy human participants is needed to determine whether fucoxanthin plays a role in altering lipid metabolism or in reducing the risk of obesity. Microscopic and infrared spectroscopic comparison of the underwater adhesives produced by germlings of the brown seaweed species Durvillaea antarctica and Hormosira banksii. We ended up with a couple of varieties – most of these are bladder wracks, which are all technically edible but not that great tasting. Postma PR, Cerezo-Chinarro O, Akkerman RJ, The myriad variations in iodine concentration between seaweed species, season, and harvest location present challenges to the food industry, since there is limited and conflicting information about how individual seaweeds may impact iodine status and thyroid health. There is also considerable interest in the effect of alginate on glycemic control, particularly its impact on postprandial glucose absorption. (2014) Polysaccharides A.J Underwood, Grazing and disturbance: an experimental analysis of patchiness in recovery from a severe storm by the intertidal alga Hormosira banksii on rocky shores in New South Wales, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 10.1016/S0022-0981(98)00091-4, 231, 2, (291-306), (1998). et al. Plant constricted at regular intervals into a series of hollow beads usually 10 mm in diametre. If the potential functional food and nutraceutical applications of seaweeds are to be realized, more evidence from human intervention studies is needed to evaluate the nutritional benefits of seaweeds and the efficacy of their purported bioactive components. The bioavailability of polyphenolic compounds in food varies greatly but is known to be low.144 Information about the bioavailability of seaweed-derived polyphenolic compounds is limited, but a recent human intervention trial that investigated the bioavailability of polyphenols extracted from Ascophyllum nodosum provided initial indications of interpersonal variation in polyphenol uptake. et al. Edible seaweeds (macroalgae) have the potential to provide a rich and sustainable source of macronutrients and micronutrients to the human diet, particularly in regions where seaweed makes a significant contribution to regular meals, eg, in Japan, where approximately one-fifth of meals contain seaweed.1–3 Inclusion of seaweeds in Western diets has traditionally been limited to artisanal practices and coastal communities but has gained wider consumer interest in recent years, courtesy of the health-food industry.4 The recent surge of interest in seaweed is fueled by attention on the bioactive components of seaweed, which have potential applications in the lucrative functional food and nutraceutical industries, with impetus toward the alleviation of metabolic risk factors such as hyperglycemia, hypercholesterolemia, and hyperlipidemia.5 The candidate bioactive components of interest to industry include isolated polysaccharides (eg, alginate, fucoidan), proteins (eg, phycobiliproteins), polyphenols (eg, phlorotannins), carotenoids (eg, fucoxanthin), and n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (eg, eicosapentaenoic acid). Longer-term studies are required to demonstrate the effects of alginate on appetite control and weight management. Only 1 study to date has analyzed the vitamin D3 content of seaweeds, reporting amounts of 0.83 mg/100 g of dry weight in Fucus spiralis and 1.05 mg/100 g of dry weight in Porphyra spp.26 This equates to 41.5 μg (415% of RNI) and 63.5 μg (635% of RNI) in a 5-g dried portion of Fucus spiralis and Porphyra spp, respectively.182 Further characterization studies are required to corroborate these findings, which suggest seaweed is a valuable dietary source of vitamin D. Seaweed is one of the few nonanimal sources of vitamin B12. Phenolic-rich extracts from the edible seaweed, A randomised crossover placebo-controlled trial investigating the effect of brown seaweed (, The impact of a single dose of a polyphenol-rich seaweed extract on postprandial glycaemic control in healthy adults: a randomised cross-over trial. et al. Guidance about an individual’s iodine status and how seaweed consumption may benefit the individual could also ensure consumer safety. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Given that Laminaria spp are widely abundant, currently used as food ingredients, and have such a high iodine content, characterization of iodine in Laminaria-containing products is warranted. Current Asian populations are reported to consume less seaweed than previous generations, shifting toward a high-energy, low-fiber Westernized diet that promotes the development of metabolic syndrome and has increased the number of iodine-deficient individuals in Japan.273,274 One recent intervention study in a European population concluded that Palmaria palmata consumption could improve iodine status in adults, as serum TSH was significantly increased (within the normal clinical range) following Palmaria palmata intake of 5 g/d for 28 days.275 The authors of this study highlighted the need to characterize seaweed composition when undertaking human interventions to help ascertain which components of seaweed affect health, immune function, and disease risk. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/604338/Salt_reduction_targets_for_2017.pdf. et al. Search for other works by this author on: VOYA Products Limited, County Sligo, Ireland. Fig. . While the evidence from observational studies reviewed here may indicate potential benefits, the outcomes must be viewed with considerable caution. Many populations are failing to meet daily requirements for dietary fiber intake.79,80 The potential functional properties of dietary fiber are associated with the viscous and water-binding properties of fiber within the gastrointestinal tract.82 As a result, fiber has been suggested to promote satiety and weight loss; delay gastric emptying to improve glycemic control; enhance stool bulking to reduce gut transit time and increase defecation frequency; and enhance bile acid excretion, resulting in reduced low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) in blood.81–83 Dietary fiber components are also suggested to improve health via their fermentation by the colonic microbiota, which can favorably alter gut microbial composition and enhance the production of health-associated volatile fatty acids such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate. Found in low tide zone on rocky moderately exposed shores or on stones in sand/mud areas in calm inlets. Arsenic species may be categorized as toxic (inorganic arsenic, which are class I carcinogens), nontoxic (arsenobetaine), or potentially toxic (fat-soluble arsenic, arsenosugars, and other organoarsenicals).232 The health risks associated with inorganic hydrogen arsenate species are related to DNA damage, which predisposes cells to carcinogenesis. wide (2 cm), in spring. South African Government, Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Beads contain sea water to prevent dessication at low tide. All authors participated in the writing and critical revision of the manuscript in a manner sufficient to establish ownership of the intellectual content. Neptune’s necklace (Hormosira banksii) is well known to most people who have visited the rocky shore. The health benefits of seaweed, beyond the provision of essential nutrients, have been supported by in vitro studies and some animal studies; however, many of these studies have inappropriate biomarkers to substantiate a claim and have not progressed to suitably designed human intervention trials to evaluate efficacy. Yotsu-Yamashita M, Yasumoto T, Yamada S, Consumption of 10 g of nori, kombu, or wakame per day for 3 days, followed by a 3-day washout period between seaweeds, resulted in increased levels of the arsenosugars DMA, thio-dimethylarsenoacetic acid (DMAA), and thio-DMAE in 24-hour urine samples obtained during the 3 days of seaweed consumption. Declaration of interest. Such information would aid the functional food industry in targeting optimal conditions for isolating specific bioactive components.16–18,Table 1,17,19–32,Table 2,19–22,26,27,29–31,33–42 and Table 319–24,26,27,29,30,36,43–53 present the macronutrient content of multiple brown, red, and green seaweeds, respectively, and consider a 5-g serving relative to reference nutrient intakes. Adamse P, Van der Fels-Klerx HJ, de Jong J. Castlehouse H, Smith C, Raab A, Other studies reporting the vitamin B12 content of seaweeds do not specify whether the vitamin B12 is present in the active form that can be absorbed and utilized in humans. The following Supporting Information is available through the online version of this article at the publisher’s website. A 5-g portion of dried brown, red, and green seaweed corresponds, respectively, to a maximum of 1.97%, 4.5%, and 2.98% of the Reference Nutrient Intake for protein. Odunsi ST, Vazquez-Roque MI, Camilleri M, The effect of common processing conditions on the phytochemical constituents of an edible Irish seaweed, ... (Hormosira banksii (Turner) Decaisne), Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 10.1111/jfpp.13025, 41, 4, (2016). It is estimated that 56 million metric tonnes of algae will be required per annum as an alternative protein source by 2054, which will represent 5.94% of global protein demand.78 Given the variability of both the content and the bioavailability of protein from whole seaweeds, protein extracts may contribute substantially to nonanimal protein sources in the future. Published January 2013. . Given that consumption of whole seaweed, which has a low lipid content, is unlikely to contribute significantly to dietary fat intake, macroalgae may offer a sustainable sources of extractable PUFAs that can be further investigated for their anti-inflammatory effects on obesity and obesity-associated comorbidities. An overview of the amino acid contents of several brown, red, and green seaweeds is presented in Tables S3, S4, and S5 in the Supporting Information online. . Seaweeds from the Portuguese coast: a potential food resource? Rules and regulations governing the gathering and farming of seaweeds. However, just because our seaweeds are edible, it by no means follows that they are all delicious. 13F511. Case-controlled studies by Hoshiyama et al266,267 implicated an inverse relationship between seaweed consumption and stomach and colon cancer; nevertheless, interpretation warrants caution in light of the low sample power of the studies. An inverse association was also reported between Undaria pinnatifida, Sargassum fusiforme, and Porphyra spp intake and prevalence of allergic rhinitis in pregnant Japanese women (n = 1002).268 The study did not measure iodine intake or iodine status, which would have contributed to the knowledge of iodine intake from seaweeds during pregnancy, since current recommendations in Australia and New Zealand limit brown seaweed intake to 1 portion per week in pregnant women.269 There are also concerns about the potential for seaweed to contribute to foodborne infections, as noted by reports of norovirus contamination of Enteromorpha spp270 and the presence of polycavernoside A toxin in Gracilaria edulis.271,272. https://www.anses.fr/en/content/opinion-french-food-safety-agency-recommended-maximum-inorganic-arsenic-content-laminaria. It produces its own food through the process of photosynthesis. et al. On a gram-for-gram basis, seaweeds have protein and amino acid contents comparable to those of beef; however, seaweeds are consumed in much smaller quantities.55 It should also be noted that the protein content of seaweed is often derived from total nitrogen by using a conversion factor of 6.25 (Kjeldahl method), which likely produces an overestimate, given the nonprotein sources of nitrogen in seaweed. Consequently, more human studies are needed to investigate the bioavailability of polyphenols from ingested whole seaweeds, as there is potential for seaweed-derived fermentable fibers and polyphenols to exert synergistic effects on the gut microbiota and the host. . Randomized controlled trials with suitable biomarkers, as well as supportive in vitro and in vivo animal studies, are warranted to verify previous observations and eludicate the mechanisms of action of edible seaweeds in humans. The ecological communities being investigated are rocky shores of either Botany Bay or Shelley Beach at Cronulla. The nutritional composition of four commercially available seaweeds, Macrocystis pyrifera, Undaria pinnatifida, Porphyra and Ecklonia radiata, was compared with six wild-harvested species, Ulva stenophylla, Porphyra, Ecklonia radiata, Durvillaea antarctica, Hormosira banksii and Undaria pinnatifida. As shown in Table S7 in the Supporting Information online, Palmaria spp had the lowest ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids,19,28 whereas Gracilaria gracilis had the highest.35, Dietary reference values have not been established for PUFAs collectively, but an intake of 4% of total energy is recommended for n-6 linoleic acid.130 Foods with a greater ratio of PUFAs to SFAs may be favorable for maintaining blood LDL-C within normal concentrations,83 although more human intervention studies are needed to confirm the efficacy of PUFAs in managing dyslipidemia and attenuating low-grade inflammation.131, Evidence of bioactivity specific to seaweed lipids is limited, although male KK-Ay mice treated with 1% Undaria pinnatifida lipid showed a significant reduction in body weight after 4 weeks when compared with controls, while total weight of white adipose tissue was reduced in mice who consumed both the Undaria pinnatifida lipid and n-3 PUFA-rich scallop phospholipids.132 Other anti-inflammatory activities of seaweed lipids include the inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in human THP-1 macrophages by lipids derived from the red seaweeds Porphyra dioica, Palmaria palmata, and Chondrus crispus.133 Lipids extracted from Gracilaria spp also inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide production in murine RAW 264.7 macrophage cells and decreased the viability of human T-47D breast cancer cells and of 5637 human bladder cancer cells.134 Lastly, a C18 fatty acid extracted from Ulva lactuca was reported to exert an anticancer effect via activation of the Nrf2-ARE pathway to promote scavenging of reactive oxygen species.135. Bull. Polyphenols detected in serum ranged from 0.011 to 7.757 µg/mL, while the total concentration of urinary phlorotannin and its metabolites ranged from 0.15 to 33.52 µg/mL.145 The authors concluded, on basis of the absorption rate (6–24 hours), that the gut microbiota–mediated metabolism of the polyphenols could be a major contributor to the apparent interpersonal variation in polyphenol absorption. Probably agardhii The Adelaide region is blessed with many hectares of seagrass meadows which havesome truly unique inhabitants. This may also require an understanding of how the molecular weight of fucoidan affects bioactivity. Thanh T. Dang, Quan Van Vuong, Maria J. Schreider, Michael C. Bowyer, Ian A. Bikker P, van Krimpen MM, van Wikselaar P, For example, the vitamin A content (retinol equivalents of carotenoid content, determined by high-performance liquid chromatography) of a 5-g portion of dried seaweed varies from 14.5 μg (2% of Reference Nutrient Intake [RNI]) in Ulva rigida53 to 70.5 μg in Fucus spiralis (10% of RNI).26 The vitamin C content varies from 0.41 mg (1% of RNI) in Ascophyllum nodosum to 9.24 mg (23% of RNI) in Undaria pinnatifida.1 Reported folate (vitamin B9) content varies from 7.5 μg (3.75% of RNI) in Ulva spp1 to 5400 μg (2700% of RNI) in Ulva rigida.53 Both seasonal and geographical variations may explain such wide variation within the same genus. . Figure 123 enlarge. [29,41] on Hormosira banksii and Sargassum vestitum. Llop S, Lopez-Espinosa MJ, Murcia M, They are often bound to cell wall polysaccharides, protecting against oxidative damage.136 Brown seaweeds contain diverse flavonoid and phlorotannin polyphenols that vary in structure, molecular weight, and level of isomerization.137,138, The purported bioactivities of seaweed polyphenols include potential anticancer141 and antioxidant activities.140,142,143 Inhibition of digestive enzymes, which may prevent lipid absorption and help maintain glucose homeostasis, has also been suggested.138,139.

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